The ancient Egyptians created a civilisation that lasted for over 3,000 years. It has been calculated that during this period more than half a billion people existed on Egypt's soil.

The Egyptians developed a remarkable knowledge of astronomy, engineering, mathematics, and medicine, and had an organised taxation and legal system with a police force and courts.

Women had more legal rights than those in some countries today. They wore fine clothing and used a wide range of cosmetics and beauty products.

Tutankhamun and Ramses the Great were just two of 170 or more known pharaohs of Egypt. Pepi II was the longest reigning king in recorded history. He ruled for 94 years and lived to the age of 97!

We owe our calendar of 365 days to the ancient Egyptians. They were the first to divide the day and night into 24 hours and to use clocks.

The ancient Egyptians were truly amazing, which is why I found their history to be fascinating.

Ancient Egyptian history is conventionally divided into three main periods known as the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2160 BC), Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1750 C), and New Kingdom (c. 1550-1086 BC). During these epochs, the centralised power of the pharaohs was at its height, but between them came times of royal weakness, civil strife, and foreign invasions called Intermediate Periods. Later, Egyptian history was characterised by further foreign invasions by the Libyans, Assyrians, Nubians, Persians, and Greeks, whose kings often themselves became pharaohs. With the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC and the absorption of Egypt into the Roman Empire, the era of the pharaoh finally ended.

In the 3rd century BC an Egyptian priest called Manetho wrote a history of Egypt, dividing the list of kings into 30 dynasties or family lines. Scholars today use Manetho's subdivisions, sometimes adding a 31st dynasty at the end.

An itinerary for a day tour in Cairo should begin at the Egyptian Museum, which houses the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts, including the famed gold mask of the boy king, Tutankhamun. You should not rush through this; you need to spend at least 4 hours there to go through some of the more momentous and monumental pieces. Then take a visit in the afternoon to the Khan al-Khalili bazaar for some lunch and shopping. In the evening book yourself on a sound and light show at the Sphinx. Read my separate entry on this spectacle for more info.

The entire programme, lasting about an hour, gives a rather simplified but overdramatised version of Egypt's history. The commentary may not be impressive, but it is rather entertaining when re-told by the Sphinx in its booming, albeit accented voice, which sounds suspiciously British.

Having seen the pyramids during a day tour, I was very much looking forward to seeing them at night, and I have to say, I was not disappointed. So call me cheesy, but I was dazzled (and a bit impressed) by the misty, multi-coloured lighting effects, and during the hour-long show, laser hieroglyphic images were projected onto the side of the pyramid.

It is performed three times nightly in three different languages: English, French, and Japanese. It would be a good idea to call ahead to check the timing of the performance in your preferred language. Other languages can be arranged for groups.

Be sure to bring along a thick sweater or blanket, as you won't want to be freezing like I was! It can get especially cold during the winter out in the open desert with chilling winds.

Performance times during winter: 6:30pm, 7:30pm, and 8:30pm every evening.
During summer: 8:30pm, 9:30pm, and 10:30pm nightly.

If you miss the one at the Giza, you might want to consider the one at the Karnak Temple if you do get a chance to visit Luxor. The Sound and Light Show at the Karnak Temple Complex is a little better. However, it can get a bit too popular with big crowds attending the nightly shows, especially the English one at 8pm, and may become difficult to catch the narration, but it is more interactive as the voices lead you through the complex whilst the story unfolds. No laser lights are involved in this show, but the monuments around the complex are each lit up as the narration relates the events surrounding the building of the complex and the many pharaohs involved in its construction at each point. A cast of characters, including Rameses II and III and Nefertari, appear.

Indisputably one of the richest archaeological sites in Egypt, Saqqara boasts some of the oldest monuments, dating from the earliest ancient Egyptian funerary structures to Coptic monasteries. It was developed as the royal necropolis for the Old Kingdom capital of Memphis just west of here, but as Memphis grew, so did the city of the dead until it covered an area approximately 7km from north to south. While Saqqara continued to be used as a burial site for officials during those days, it was eventually abandoned and, apart from the pyramid of Djoser (pronounced ZO-SER), lay buried under sand for centuries until Auguste Mariette discovered the Serapeum in 1851. Ever since then, regular finds have been made at Saqqara.

The centerpiece of the Saqqara necropolis is, of course, the Step Pyramid of Djoser, the prototype for the pyramids of Giza and all others that followed. It was designed and built in the 27th century BC by the high priest Imhotep, also the chief architect of the third Dynasty. This remarkable structure is a six-tiered funerary chamber and the first large stone building in the world.

It marked a leap forward in the history of architecture because, prior to its construction, pharaohs were buried in Egyptian royal tombs that had been underground rooms covered with low, flat, mud bricks called mastabas.

The great innovator and inventor Imhotep chose to use stone rather than mud brick, and to build not just one mastaba but six, one on top of the other, with each additional layer smaller than the one beneath it, thus creating the world's first pyramid. The vast enclosure surrounding the step pyramid marked yet another major achievement, as it provided the template for subsequent Egyptian art and architecture.

This was completed with bastions and colonnaded corridors of 40 pillars, which were ribbed in imitation of palm stems. Be sure to look out for a restored section of wall bearing a frieze of cobras as you walk along the Great South Court. Some of the oldest known examples of tourist graffiti dating from the 12th century BC can also be seen preserved in the buildings east of the pyramid.

On the north side of the pyramid, there is a life-sized painted statue of Djoser himself. It is installed in a serdab, a kind of stone box which is designed to allow the dead pharoah's ka (spirit) to interact with the living world. The statue is a replica, as the original is in Cairo's Egyptian Museum.

Special permission is required to enter the pyramid, so you'll need to check for more information with the local tourist authorities. You can find them located near the Giza plateau, just before you enter into the area where the pyramids stand.

The city has almost completely vanished. Its magnificent temples and palaces were torn down and pillaged by foreign invaders from the Romans onwards, and the ruins were then buried under the alluvial mud deposited by the annual flooding of the Nile. Palm groves, cultivated fields, and villages now cover the site of this once impressive city. What little has been discovered at Memphisis is gathered together in a small, open-air museum in the village of Mit Rahina.

The showpiece of the museum is a colossal limestone statue of Ramses II, which lies, truncated at the knees, in a viewing pavilion. The statue is similar to the colossus of Ramses II found in Memphis and replicated in Midan Ramses. In the garden there are more statues of Ramses II and an 18th-century Dynasty Sphinx, which, at 80 tons, is the largest calcite statue ever found! The garden also contains several calcite slabs, on which the sacred Apis bulls were mummified before being buried in nearby Saqqara.

The main entrance, leading to the interesting Coptic Museum and the beautiful Hanging Church, is between two round Roman towers, against which the waters of the Nile once lapped before the river shifted its course to the west centuries ago. A second, stepped entrance to the north leads along a sunken alley to the rest of the churches, the synagogue, and the cemeteries. Standing within the compound are the Churches of St. Barbara, St. Sergius, St. George, and the most beautiful of all, the Hanging Church. There is also the Convent of St. George and the Ben Ezra Synagogue, with its Greek Orthodox Cemetery.

The Coptic Museum houses artifacts which trace the origins of Christian art in the Near East. The building itself is beautiful, especially the older, southern wing. There is also a garden and café (which was under restoration when I was there in Dec 2003). Hours are from 9am to 5pm daily and 9am to 3pm during Ramadan.

Long before the Crusaders carried tales of his legendary exploits back to Europe, St. George was venerated throughout the Christian Middle East as Mar Girgis. Famed for his dragon slaying feat, he is said to have been a Roman legionary who defied a decree by Emperor Diocletian outlawing the worship of Christ and was martyred for his beliefs some time in the 3rd century. There has been a church dedicated to St. George on this site since the 10th century, but today's striking round structure dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. The circular form of the church echoes the shape of the 1st century Roman gate tower on top of which it was built. The remains of the tower are still visible beneath the church on the north side. It is frequented by members of the local Christian community who regularly light the candles and say prayers here. Open to the public daily from 8am to 12:45pm and 2:30pm to 3:15pm.

The Hanging Church is ornately decorated on the inside and is definitely worth a visit. See my separate entry about this beautiful and unusual building.

The original structure was built possibly as early as the 4th century, but it was destroyed and rebuilt in the 11th century. Expansion and reconstruction have gone on ever since, making it difficult to date precisely any specific part of the church. The foundations of the Church can be seen from the courtyard of the Coptic Museum or through the glass panels interlaced with the wooden flooring. The façade is surrounded by its distinctive twin bell towers, and the whole front section is a relatively recent addition, dating only from the 19th century.

On the porch at the top of the staircase are stalls selling cassettes of Coptic liturgies and videos of papal sermons. There is a carved frieze of Christ flanked by angels just above the staircase leading to the inner courtyard of the church. You can see the earliest pieces of this frieze at the nearby Coptic Museum. The outer porch, dating back to the 11th century, is decorated with glazed tiles in geometrical designs. The Roman Towers belonged to the southwestern bastion of the original Roman fortress and date from around the 1st century.

The walls on the interior are adorned with icons of St. George, the Virgin and John the Baptist. It is ornately furnished with a marble pulpit that rests on 13 columns, representing Christ and His disciples, and the inlaid ivory screens that hide the three altar areas date from between 10th and 13th centuries. The Sanctuary Screen is carved from cedar wood and delicately inlaid with ivory, adorned with icons, and the central screen that shields the main altar is the finest of its kind in Egypt. Other notable features include the three barrel-vaulted, wooden-roofed aisles, supported on columns with Corinthian capitals, an indication that they were recycled from earlier buildings!

Despite its venerable name, the church is still used for regular public services, which are held every Friday and Sunday morning. Open Monday to Thursday and Saturday from 9am to 4pm. Friday from 8 to 11am and Sunday from 7 to 10am.

Part of the church interior was under restoration when I visited in Dec 2003.

Outgrowing the two homes it was previously housed in, the museum then settled on its present, purpose-built premises in 1902. It has more than 120,000 items on display and is rumoured to have another 150,000 stored in the basement!

The pride of the museum is without doubt the collection of artifacts recovered from the tomb of Tut-ankh-amun. However, that is not all the musuem is famous for, as it also houses excellent pieces from every period of ancient Egyptian history, dating from as far back as the Narmer Palette (c. 3100 BC) through 2nd-century AD portraits of the Graeco-Roman era.

Located on two levels, the artifacts on the ground floor are organised in a somewhat chronological order, running clockwise from the entrance and atrium, while the first-floor collection is arranged by themes. The central hall houses a large monumental statuary. While not particularly large, the museum is densely packed with artifacts, seemingly displayed haphazardly, but there is a method to the madness. Anybody with more than a passing interest in ancient Egypt will need more than one visit to take in everything.

During peak tourist seasons, the museum is busy with long queues to enter, and on the inside, even longer waiting lines just to see Tut-ankh-amun's funeral mask. The life-sized gold mask is just one of 1,700 items retrieved from the tomb. To view the mask at some leisure, it is best to visit just as the museum opens or late in the afternoon and make straight for the boy king's galleries on the first floor, then visiting the rest afterward.

For main highlights besides the Tut-ankh-amun Galleries, be sure to see the Fayoum Potraits, which depict remarkably lifelike Egyptians from the Graeco-Roman period. There is also an exhibit of exquisite ancient Egyptian jewellery, with necklaces made with beads of gold and lapis lazuli from around the 11th century BC. Also, be sure to visit the Amarna Room, with exhibits from Akhenaten's rule. During the 15-year reign of this radical king, not only was the old religion abandoned, but also was its art. A new style developed in which figures were depicted with elongated heads and protruding bellies. If you follow a clockwise direction, you will finish the ground floor tour in the wing where you'll meet Prince Rahotep and his bride Nofret, two life-size limestone statues (c. 2620BC) which were found in their mastaba near the Meidum Pyramid in Fayoum. You will also see the statue of Ka-Aper, whose eyes seem to be glaring at you with their copper rims, corneas of clear rock crystal, and whites of opaque quartz, drilled and filled with black paste!

Passing through the gates
After your hour-long queue during high season, you will have to go through a security check, passing your belongings through an x-ray scanner. Objectionable items need to be placed in the left-luggage, but this is not very safe, as there are no locks at the storage and any tourist can claim to own your item and walk out with it. So it’s best not to bring too many things with you on your visit. Only your valuables, like your cash and passport, will do.

If you'd like to bring your camera into the museum, you may, but you'd have to pay to purchase a permit for its use inside. This is in the form of a sticker, which needs to be placed on the camera to be used within its premises. Take note that photography is only allowed between the hours of 9am to 2pm. Flash photography is not allowed at any time. Costs for the permit range between EGP$10 for automatics to EGP$175 for pro SLRs. Video cameras cost EGP$100. EGP$10 is roughly equal to US$1.61. EGP$100 is equal to $16. (As of the end of Oct 2004).

There is a small souvenir shop to the right of the entrance offering reproductions of some of the more popular artifacts exhibited in the museum, including the blue fertility hippos made popular by the Metropolitan Museum store. You can also purchase cartouches spelling out your name in Egyptian hieroglyphics. But for these, you'd need to return after your visit for them. So if you're interested, place your order before you tour the place. There are other shops offering the same, but likely for a fraction less. Other collectibles popular with tourists are little lapis lazuli scarabs (as good-luck charms) and basalt Bastet cat statues.

It costs EGP$20 per person, with an extra charge of EGP$40 for the Royal Mummy Room; children are half price.

Phone: +20 (0)2 579 6974; Fax: +20 (0)2 579 4596.

The museum is found on Mariette Pasha Street, on the north side of Tahrir Square, right next to the Nile Hilton Hotel, whose sign is very prominently displayed as you come onto the roundabout.

Opening hours of the museum are 9am to 6:30pm daily, with the last admission at 6pm sharp. During Ramadan, it closes at 3pm.

Built in 1382 by Garkas al-Khalili, Master of Horses, to Sultan Barquq, Khan al-Khalili is one of the biggest bazaars in the Middle East. This is the Oriental bazaar of fable, where gold, silver, brass, and copper goods glitter enticingly in the cave-like interiors, and sacks overflowing with exotic spices fill the air with their pungent scents. Its maze of narrow, canvas-covered alleyways is crammed with shops selling a huge variety of goods. You can also find traditional Egyptian crafts, such as dyeing, carving, and sewing, being practised here, as they have been for centuries.

Khan al-Khalili is also a major tourist attraction. Hordes of tourists arrive here by the coach loads to haggle and stock up on the kitschy trinkets and souvenirs that are sold in nearly every shop in the main part of the bazaar.

The bazaar grew up around several KHANs(also known as WIKALAs or CARAVANSERAI), which served as both warehouses and lodgings for travelling merchant caravans. Most have been swallowed up by later structures, but a few remain. The Wikala of al-Ghouri is Cairo's best preserved example of medieval merchant hostels and is now an arts-and-crafts centre, with its courtyard serving on occasion as a theatre.

On a side street off Sharia Muski, stairs lead to the upper level of the Wikala of Silahdar (1837), where the former living quarters can be made out, arranged around the central courtyard. Two carved stone gates in the Badestan area, added during the reign of Sultan al-Ghouri (1501-16), are the oldest surviving part of the Khan.

At noon, you can hear the prayer calls resounding throughout the Khan and echoed through the alleyways from the mosques that surround the Khan including:
-Mosque of al-Ashraf Barsbey (on Sharia al-Muizz Li-Din Allah): Built in 1423, it boasts a beautifully-carved wooden pulpit, inlaid with ivory.
-Mosque of al-Azhar (Sharia al-Azhar): Founded in AD 970, this mosque and centre for Islamic learning is one of the oldest in the city. The mosque displays a mix of architectural styles, including an18th century Gate of the Barbers.
-Mosque of Sayyidna al-Hussein: Next to Midan Hussein, this is the holiest site in Cairo. It is said to contain the head of Hussein, grandson of the Prophet Muhammed. It was built in 1870 on the site of a 12th century mosque and is off-limits to non-Muslims.

A typical coffee house is no more than a collection of old tables and chairs placed in a narrow alleyway, like Fishawi's in the Khan-el-Khalili Bazaar. Frequented predominantly by Egyptian men, foreign women are usually welcomed. Coffeehouses are busy at all hours of the day, with many remaining open round the clock.

Apart from tea (SHAI) and coffee (AHWA), most serve fresh lemon juice (LAMOON) and iced KARKADE, a fragrant and refreshing crimson infusion made from boiled hibiscus flowers and leaves. There is also a milky drink made from yogurt called ZABAADY, and SAHLEB, which is a hot drink made with semolina powder, milk, and chopped nuts.

No coffeehouse would be complete without the SHEESHA or HOOKAH (water pipe) through which tobacco is smoked. Offered at coffeehouses as an accompaniment to drinks, the tobacco is soaked in molasses or sometimes apple juice.

Backgammon and dominoes are the most popular of the coffeehouse games, with animated players slamming down their pieces. Chess is not particularly common in Egypt, but a few coffeehouses are venues for fans of the game. A site popular for this is the Horreyya Ahwa, located in downtown Cairo (Midan al-Falaki, Sharia at-Tahrir).

Each AHWA is frequented by its own particular set of clientele, and several of the more interesting ones are tucked away down tight alleys, like Ash-Shams in downtown Cairo (Souq al-Tawfiqiyya), which is notable for its garish wall paintings. One of the oldest is Fishawi's, buried in the narrow lanes of the Khan al-Khalili, one block in from Midan al-Hussein. Open day and night for the past 200 years, it is crammed with small copper-topped tables, while huge antique mirrors line the walls. Patrons are seen puffing away on their SHEESHAs and sipping mint tea round the clock. It is as much a must-see for visiting out-of-town Egyptians as it is for foreigners!

Whilst on first encounter, it may seem to cater excessively to tourism, explore deeper, and the narrow alleys become a bustling hive of small workshops turning out attractive jewellery and copper- and glassware. Here, you can buy direct from the artisans and cut out the middleman. And uncover that one hidden treasure that's been eluding you ~ like a Tiffany-inspired bracelet at half the cost you'd pay back home! It’s a treasure trove, filled with little box sets of backgammon and chess made out of hard woods and inlaid with intricate designs of mother-of-pearl, bone, or ivory.

Sheeshas or HOookahs (water pipes) are a fixture in every coffee house, and an exotic gift to bring back home. Decorated with stainless steel or brass fittings, the pipes use a special fragrant tobacco, loosely packed into a clay pot. Delicate little glass trinkets, perfume bottles are fashioned into intricate shapes. Undulating like a houri dancer, they come in various sizes and make wonderful gifts. Garish, glittering, and jangling with sequins and bells and beads, the belly-dancer's costumer is another popular purchase.

Decorative boxes and an array of kitschy paraphernalia fill the market stalls, alongside traditional handicrafts often made by local artisans. Egyptian copperware and MUSKI glass are produced in Cairo's Khan al-Khalili, while Bedouin jewellery traditionally comes from Sinai. The best hand-woven silk and cotton is made in Akhmim in Middle Egypt, famous for the quality of its weaving.

The Art of the Haggle

It pays to take some time to acquaint yourself with the art of bargaining. Buying and selling in Egypt is traditionally a highly ritualised affair, in which bargaining is far more than just haggling for a cheap price. The aim of the exercise is to establish a fair price that both vendor and buyer are happy with. As part of the process, a shop-owner may well invite you to have a cup of tea or coffee and may literally turn the place upside down to show something. You should not feel obliged to buy because of this, as it is a common sales practice and all part of the ritual. Bargaining even happens in city-centre shops, over goods which appear to have a fixed price. It is in the souq, however, that it becomes necessity if you want to avoid paying greatly over the odds.

Once you have identified an article that interests you, especially if it is an expensive one, be brave enough to offer half the price quoted by the shop-owner. Don't be put off by feigned indignation or mockery on the shop-keeper's part, and only raise your next offer by a small amount. Through a process of offer and counter-offer, you should eventually arrive at a mutually agreeable price. If you don't reach a price you think is fair, then simply say thank you and leave. Making to walk away can often have the effect of bringing the price tumbling down.

In theory, although you may feel uncomfortable, no one gets cheated. You, the buyer, have set the price yourself, so it follows that you are happy with what you have agreed to pay. The shop-keeper, for his part, will never sell at a loss, so he will certainly have made a profit on the deal.